Unit 27 · Using language appropriately for a range of classroom functions

Classroom functions are the purposes for which we use language in the classroom — many and varied, for example explaining and instructing. Each function has a range of possible exponents, and choosing the language that is right for the situation and our audience means using language appropriately.

◆How do we use language appropriately for classroom functions?

Classroom functionsFunctions are a way of describing how we use language. click to keep open · see glossary are the purposes for which we use language in the classroom. These functions are many and varied, for example explaining and instructing.

For each classroom function there are different exponentsAn example of a grammar point, function or lexical set; e.g. Can you open the window, please? is an exponent for making requests. click to keep open · see glossary we can use. The choice of exponent depends on the learning context1. The situation in which language is used or presented; e.g. a story about a holiday experience could be used as the context to present and practise past tenses. Photographs can help to provide a context for a magazine article. 2. The words or phrases before … click to keep open · see glossary and purpose, the learners’ needsThe language, language skills or learning strategies a learner still has to learn in order to reach their goals, which are the things they want personally and professionally which are connected to their learning. For example, a learner might need to have good … click to keep open · see glossary, their age and level. When we choose language that is right for the situation and our audience, we say that we use language appropriatelyLanguage which is suitable in a particular situation; e.g. it might be appropriate to say Hi in one situation but Good morning in another. See inappropriate, formal language, informal language, register. click to keep open · see glossary.

◆Key concepts — a sample of classroom discourse

What are some of the more common classroom functions of teacher language and their exponents? List them.

Here is a sample of classroom discourseSpoken language or written language in texts, e.g. groups of sentences which are spoken or written. click to keep open · see glossary from a beginner class of young learners. How many of the classroom functions which you listed can you find?

(from Children Learning English by Jayne Moon, Macmillan Heinemann 2000)

◆Functions and exponents of teacher language

Let’s look at the some of the functions and exponents of teacher language in the sample in detail.

Getting learners’ attention. Stand up, Adam. Stand up, Evi. (Line 1)

The teacher is getting the learners’ attention at the beginning of the sequenceA sequence is a series of things which follow each other in a logical order. Learners can sequence pictures in a story, i.e. put them in order. click to keep open · see glossary. The teacher wants everyone to listen and wants Adam and Evi to stand up. There are different times in a lesson when we need to get the learners’ attention, for example when we close an activity or when we want learners to look at the board. We usually keep these utterances short, and very often teachers develop their own exponents for getting attention with their different classes.

Instructing. OK, Adam will ask and Evi will answer. (line 1) / read this one. (line 2) / look at Adam. (line 5) / Brenda, look at Shona. (line 11) / Look at each other when you ask questions. (line 16)

The teacher gives learners instructions throughout the teaching sequence: before they start, during the activity (the instructions at this point are about non-linguistic behaviour) and at the end as a reminder. The language of instructions often uses the imperative, even with higher-level / older learners.

Modelling. Welcome (line 13) / May I borrow your pencil, please? (line 15)

The teacher models1. A clear example of the target language for learners to repeat or write down or save as a record. If a teacher is focusing on the target language of a lesson, he/she usually chooses a model sentence and writes it on the board. The teacher often models the la… click to keep open · see glossary (gives a clear example of the target language1. The language which is the focus of the lesson or a part of the lesson. It could be grammar, lexis, functions or pronunciation, e.g. the present perfect, or vocabulary for parts of the body, or giving advice. 2. The language being studied (often called the L… click to keep open · see glossary) at two points in this teaching sequence. It is important, when we model language orally, that we say only what we want learners to repeat, as the teacher does here. In the first example Brenda (the learner) repeats the word welcome after the teacher has said it. In the second example, the teacher provides a model of the structureThe arrangement of words into patterns that have meaning, e.g. subject + verb + object. click to keep open · see glossary for the whole class, but they don’t repeat it immediately.

In this teaching sequence the modelling is oral. We also model language in writing. We can guess that there is a written model on the board in this teaching sequence as the teacher says read this one.

Encouraging and instructing. Now come on, Evi, (line 5) / Brenda, a bit louder. (line 15)

Learners are often lacking in confidenceThe feeling someone has when they are sure of their ability to do something well. Teachers often do activities that help learners to feel more confident about their own ability. click to keep open · see glossary and shy about speaking in front of the class. We can encourage1. To give someone confidence to do something. When a teacher helps learners to succeed by giving them confidence, e.g. Of course you can do it! You’re doing very well. See confidence. 2. To tell someone to do something that you think would be good for them to… click to keep open · see glossary them by using language which makes them feel positive about what they can do and which reduces their level of anxiety. We sometimes also have to tell them what to do (instructing).

Nominating Oh er, Shona (pause) and (pause) Brenda (pause). (line 8)

This is just one example of nominating (choosing and naming one learner to speak or do a particular taskAn activity that learners complete. For example, problem-solving activities or information-gap activities are tasks. Task may also be used as another word for activity. See Task-Based Learning (TBL). click to keep open · see glossary) in this teaching sequence. We use learners’ names for a number of reasons, for example to get their attention, to make them feel we know who they are, to make sure that different learners answer.

PromptingTo help learners think of ideas or to remember a word or phrase by giving them a part of it or by giving another kind of clue. When a teacher suggests a word that the learner hasn’t remembered, e.g. Learner: I want to …… in an office. Teacher: Work? Learner: Y… click to keep open · see glossary a learner to continue. Come on, Shona, ask … (lines 8–9)

PromptingTo help learners think of ideas or to remember a word or phrase by giving them a part of it or by giving another kind of clue. When a teacher suggests a word that the learner hasn’t remembered, e.g. Learner: I want to …… in an office. Teacher: Work? Learner: Y… click to keep open · see glossary (helping learners think of ideas or remember a word or phrase or what to do) can sometimes be quite similar to encouraging. When we prompt we provide words, phrases, ideas or even time to help the learner continue or remember what to say. This means we sometimes leave our utterance unfinished for the learner to finish it for us, as in this example.

◆Choosing appropriate exponents — eliciting and using L1

There is a range of different exponents for each classroom function. The exponents that teachers choose depend on the context, age and language level of the learners and the formalitySee register. click to keep open · see glossary or informalitySee register. click to keep open · see glossary of the teaching situation. The exponents that teachers use must always be appropriate for the situation. Here are some examples of exponents for elicitingThis is a teaching technique. When a teacher thinks that some learners know a piece of language or other information, he/she asks targeted questions or gives clues to get or prompt them to give the target language or information rather than simply providing it… click to keep open · see glossary. You can see that some would be more appropriate to use in certain classrooms or with certain students rather than others.

• Kyoko?
• Answer, please?
• What’s number four?
• Can anyone tell me the answer to number four?
• Mr Giuliani?
• Would anyone like to try answering number four?

Most of the time, teachers are able to communicate their message successfully to the learners using the target language, accompanied by gestures where appropriate. However, in some situations, particularly with young learners and with beginner or elementary learners, it may be necessary for the teacher to use the mother tongueThe very first language that you learn as a baby, which is usually the language spoken to you by your parents. Also called L1 or first language. We learn our mother tongue in a different way from the way we learn a second language. See L1, L2, native speaker. click to keep open · see glossary or L1 from time to time. These situations include:

• problems with disciplineThe system of rules used to keep control of learners in the classroom; e.g. a teacher might maintain discipline by asking learners to stop chatting and listen to his/her instructions. click to keep open · see glossary, for example the teacher needs to quickly stop a situation from getting out of control
• possible injury or danger to a learner, for example the teacher notices that a learner’s chair is broken
• looking after a learner, for example a learner is very upset for personal reasons
• repeating instructions in L1 after they have been given in the target language, for example with a beginner young learner group
• checking understanding of more abstractConnected to thoughts and ideas rather than real objects, situations or actions. A text can be abstract and we use abstract words to express things like thoughts (e.g. believe), feelings (e.g. love) or ideas (e.g. beauty). Words for things that cannot be seen … click to keep open · see glossary vocabulary, for example with an advanced class.

It is not a good idea for teachers to use more L1 in the classroom than is necessary. If they do, learners can become more unwilling to use the target language because they are used to hearing (and perhaps using) L1.

◆Key concepts and the language teaching classroom

Read these tips and tick the ones which are most important for you.

• Exponents used in the classroom must be appropriate for the classroom function, for the learning context and purpose, and for the level and age of the learners. Examples of when exponents might be inappropriateLanguage which is not suitable in a particular situation; e.g. it is inappropriate to say Open the door, will you? to a stranger; it would be more appropriate to say: Would you mind opening the door, please? See appropriacy and register. click to keep open · see glossary are: if the language is above the learners’ level; if the language is too informal or direct and might seem impolite, for example: ‘Sit down and get on with your work’ spoken to a learner in a business class.
• Language should be gradedI.e. grammatical structures, vocabulary, skills, etc. are presented in a logical or clear sequence for learning click to keep open · see glossary to suit the language level and age of the learners. Grading language means choosing exponents that are suitable for the language level of the learners. For example, with beginners we use simple words and phrases, but with higher-level learners our language can be more complexComplicated, not simple; e.g. some English grammar is easy to understand, some grammar is more complex. click to keep open · see glossary. Grading means using language at the right level for the learners to understand.
• Language needs to be sequenced appropriately to provide learners with a range of learning opportunities. Sequencing means using language in a logicalConnecting ideas in a sensible way. A lesson is logical if the stages follow an order which makes sense and if one stage leads clearly and obviously to another. click to keep open · see glossary order. This is particularly important for explanations and instructions, for example: Listen. Work with a partner rather than Work with a partner. Listen. We usually give longer sets of instructions to learners in sections as and when they need them.
• Learners can learn chunksAny pair or group of words commonly found together or near one another, e.g. phrasal verbs (get on), idioms (it drives me crazy), collocations (make the bed), fixed expressions (How do you do?). See lexical unit. click to keep open · see glossary of language, just by hearing them again and again. So it is useful to use a fixed range of exponents for classroom functions at the early stages of learning, for example: Open your books and look at page … Once learners are familiar with a set of exponents, we can extend the range to suit their level. With more advanced learners, we can take the opportunity to exposeExposure to language means being in contact with language by hearing it or reading it. We can learn another language through exposure to it. We can learn a language without realising we are learning it and without studying it, in the same way that children lea… click to keep open · see glossary them to a wide range of language through the functional exponents we use.
• Choosing which exponents we’re going to use for classroom functions before the lesson is important. If we do not plan or think about what language to use, we might use the L1, or language which is too complex or too simple, or language which does not respect the learners.

✎Follow-up activity

💡Reflect

🔍Discovery activities

✎TKT practice tasks

These multiple-choice tasks are exactly as in the book, but interactive: pick your answers, check your score, and retry anytime. The scoring uses the official answer key from the back of the book.

📖Glossary terms in this unit

Key terms highlighted in this unit — study them on the flashcards page.